冰川表面水文过程研究进展

doi:10.7522/j.issn.1000-0240.2016.0194

摘要/Abstract

摘要：

冰面水文过程是冰川径流过程的重要组成部分，对于冰川运动与物质平衡具有重要影响。冰川表面在太阳辐射、冰川物理性质、冰面地形和成冰带空间分布等多种因素影响下消融，形成以冰面水系为主线，锅穴、冰裂隙、冰面湖等为端点的冰面融水输送与分配体系。深入理解冰面水文过程，掌握冰川表面融水的输送、存储与释放，对于研究短时间尺度的冰川融水径流过程、探索冰川动态响应机理具有重要意义。总结回顾了目前国内外冰面水文过程的研究现状，提出了该领域有待解决的主要科学问题。

关键词: 冰川水文, 冰面河, 冰面湖, 冰裂隙, 锅穴

Abstract:

Supraglacial drainage system is one of the most important parts of glacial drainage systems, which impacts glacier surface ablation processes through transfer and drainage of surface meltwater. The existence of supraglacial drainage system also significantly impacts glacier flow and dynamics. Most of the conventional glacier hydrologic models suggest that surface meltwater can efficiently drain from glaciers and thus ignore the ability of supraglacial drainage system to retain meltwater. However, the impact of this retention, which leads to large uncertainties in glacier runoff prediction, could not be ignored. Therefore, it is crucial to improve the understanding in supraglacial drainage systems. The formation of supraglacial drainage system is controlled by glacier size, physical characteristics and ablation zone distribution. There is a seasonal development process of supraglacial drainage system from subsurface flow to slush flow and then to open channel flow. This dynamic supraglacial drainage system can route glacial surface meltwater into moulins, ice crevasses or supraglacial lakes through supraglacial networks with variable efficiencies and delays over space and time. In this paper, an attempt is tried to review the current supraglacial drainage system studies, and to discuss the evolution, distribution and constitution of supraglacial drainage system in sequence and their roles in meltwater transfer and drainage. In particular, hydrodynamics of supraglacial networks are discussed in detail to illustrate the pattern, efficiency and meltwater partition of supraglacial drainage system.

Key words: glacier hydrology, supraglacial stream, supraglacial lake, ice crevasse, moulin

中图分类号:

P343.6

杨康, 刘巧. 冰川表面水文过程研究进展[J]. 冰川冻土, 2016, 38(6): 1666-1678.

YANG Kang, LIU Qiao. Supraglacial drainage system: a review[J]. JOURNAL OF GLACIOLOGY AND GEOCRYOLOGY, 2016, 38(6): 1666-1678.

参考文献

[1] Yang Zhenniang, Zeng Qunzhu. Glacier hydrology[M]. Chongqing:Chongqing Press, 2001.[杨针娘, 曾群柱. 冰川水文学[M]. 重庆:重庆出版社, 2001.]

[2] Yang Zhenniang. Glacier water resources in China[M]. Lanzhou:Gansu Science and Technology Press, 1991.[杨针娘. 中国冰川水资源[M]. 兰州:甘肃科学技术出版社, 1991.]

[3] Yang Kang. The progress of Greenland ice sheet surface ablation research[J]. Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology, 2013, 35(1):101-109.[杨康. 格陵兰冰盖表面消融研究进展[J]. 冰川冻土,2013, 35(1):101-109.]

[4] Irvine-Fynn T D L, Hodson A J, Moorman B J, et al. Polythermal glacier hydrology:a review[J]. Reviews of Geophysics,2011, 49(4):75-87.

[5] Rennermalm A K, Moustafa S E, Mioduszewski J, et al. Understanding Greenland ice sheet hydrology using an integrated multi-scale approach[J]. Environmental Research Letters,2013, 8(1):3865-3879.

[6] Fang Xiaoyu, Li Zhongqin, Wuennemann B, et al. Physical energy-balance and statistical glacier melting models comparison and testing for Shiyi Glacier, Heihe River basin, Qilian Mountains, China[J]. Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology, 2015, 37(2):336-350.[方潇雨, 李忠勤, Wuennemann B, 等. 冰川物质平衡模式及其对比研究:以祁连山黑河流域十一冰川研究为例[J]. 冰川冻土,2015, 37(2):336-350.]

[7] Jansson P, Hock R, Schneider T. The concept of glacier storage:a review[J]. Journal of Hydrology,2003, 282(1):116-129.

[8] Hock R. Glacier melt:a review of processes and their modelling[J]. Progress in Physical Geography,2005, 29(3):362-391.

[9] Shreve R L. Movement of water in glaciers[J]. Journal of Glaciology,1972, 11(62):205-214.

[10] Fountain A G, Walder J S. Water flow through temperate glaciers[J]. Reviews of Geophysics,1998, 36(3):299-328.

[11] Liu Qiao, Liu Shiyin. Progress in the study of englacial and subglacial drainage system of glaciers[J]. Advances in Earth Science, 2012, 27(6):660-669.[刘巧, 刘时银. 冰川冰内及冰下水系研究综述[J]. 地球科学进展,2012, 27(6):660-669.]

[12] Eyles N. The role of meltwater in glacial processes[J]. Sedimentary Geology,2006, 190(1/2/3/4):257-268.

[13] Qing Wenwu, Chen Rensheng, Liu Shiyin. Progress in study of glacier hydrological model[J]. Advances in Water Science, 2008, 19(6):893-902.[卿文武, 陈仁升, 刘时银. 冰川水文模型研究进展[J]. 水科学进展,2008, 19(6):893-902.]

[14] Chu V W. Greenland ice sheet hydrology:a review[J]. Progress in Physical Geography,2014, 38(1):19-54.

[15] Greenwood S L, Clason C C, Helanow C, et al. Theoretical, contemporary observational and palaeo-perspectives on ice sheet hydrology:processes and products[J]. Earth-Science Reviews,2016, 155:1-27.

[16] Bingham R G, King E C, Smith A M, et al. Glacial geomorphology:towards a convergence of glaciology and geomorphology[J]. Progress in Physical Geography,2010, 34(3):327-355.

[17] Barry R G. The status of research on glaciers and global glacier recession:a review[J]. Progress in Physical Geography,2006, 30(3):285-306.

[18] Li Xiangying, Ding Yongjian, Ye Baisheng, et al. Changes in physical features of Glacier No. 1 of the Tianshan Mountains in response to climate change[J]. Chinese Science Bulletin, 2011, 56(26):2820-2827.[李向应, 丁永建, 叶柏生, 等. 天山1号冰川成冰带和积雪特征对气候变化的响应[J]. 科学通报,2011, 56(19):1583-1583.]

[19] Zhu Wanwan, Shangguan Donghui, Guo Wanqin, et al. Glaciers in some representative basins in the middle of the Tianshan Mountains:change and response to climate change[J]. Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology, 2014, 36(6):1376-1384.[朱弯弯, 上官冬辉, 郭万钦, 等. 天山中部典型流域冰川变化及对气候的响应[J]. 冰川冻土,2014, 36(6):1376-1384.]

[20] Ai Songtao, Wang Zemin, Tan Zhi, et al. Mass change study on Arctic Glacier Pedersenbreen, during 1936-1990-2009[J]. Chinese Science Bulletin, 2013, 58(25):3148-3154.[艾松涛, 王泽民, 谭智, 等. 北极Pedersenbreen冰川变化(1936~1990~2009年)[J]. 科学通报,2013, 58(15):1430-1437.]

[21] Hanshaw M N, Bookhagen B. Glacial areas, lake areas, and snow lines from 1975 to 2012:status of the Cordillera Vilcanota, including the Quelccaya Ice Cap, northern central Andes, Peru[J]. The Cryosphere,2014, 8(2):359-376.

[22] Nghiem S V, Hall D K, Mote T L, et al. The extreme melt across the Greenland ice sheet in 2012[J]. Geophysical Research Letters,2012, 39(20). DOI:10.1029/2012GL053611.

[23] Marzeion B, Cogley J G, Richter K, et al. Attribution of global glacier mass loss to anthropogenic and natural causes[J]. Science,2014, 345(6199):919-921.

[24] Benn D, Evans D. Glaciers & glaciation[M]. 2nd ed. London:Routledge, 2010.

[25] Liu Q, Mayer C, Liu S. Distribution and interannual variability of supraglacial lakes on debris-covered glaciers in the Khan Tengri-Tumor Mountains, Central Asia[J]. Environmental Research Letters,2015, 10(1). DOI:10.1088/1748-9326/10/1/014014.

[26] Chikita K, Jha J, Yamada T. Hydrodynamics of a supraglacial lake and its effect on the basin expansion:Tsho Rolpa, Rolwaling Valley, Nepal Himalaya[J]. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research,1999, 31(1):58-70.

[27] Holmes G. Morphology and hydrology of the Mint Julep area, southwest Greenland[C]//Project Mint Julep. Part Ⅱ. Maxwell Air Force Base, AL:Air University, 1955:1-50.

[28] McMillan M, Nienow P, Shepherd A, et al. Seasonal evolution of supra-glacial lakes on the Greenland Ice Sheet[J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters,2007, 262(3/4):484-492.

[29] Hambrey M J. Supraglacial drainage and its relationship to structure, with particular reference to Charles Rabots Bre, Okstindan, Norway[J]. Norwegian Journal of Geography,1977, 31(2):69-77.

[30] Su Bo, Li Zhongqin, Zhang Mingjun, et al. A comparative study on mass balance between the continental glaciers and the temperate glaciers:taking the typical glaciers in the Tianshan Mountains and the Alps as examples[J]. Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology, 2015, 37(5):1131-1140.[苏勃, 李忠勤, 张明军, 等. 大陆型冰川与海洋型冰川物质平衡对比研究[J]. 冰川冻土,2015, 37(5):1131-1140.]

[31] Bingham R G, Nienow P W, Sharp M J, et al. Hydrology and dynamics of a polythermal (mostly cold) High Arctic glacier[J]. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms,2006, 31(12):1463-1479.

[32] Bryka?a D. Evolution of supraglacial drainage on Waldemar Glacier (Spitsbergen) in the period 1936-1998[C]//Polish polar studies:25th International Polar Symposium. Warsaw, Poland:Institute of Geophysics of the Polish Academy of Sciences, 1998:247-263.

[33] Cui Yuhuan, Ye Baisheng, Wang Jie, et al. Analysis of the spatial-temporal variations of the positive degree-day factors on the Glacier No. 1 at the headwaters of the Ürümqi River[J]. Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology, 2010, 32(2):265-274.[崔玉环, 叶柏生, 王杰, 等. 乌鲁木齐河源1号冰川度日因子时空变化特征[J]. 冰川冻土,2010, 32(2):265-274.]

[34] Sun Weijun, Qin Xiang, Ren Jiawen, et al. Surface energy balance in the accumulation zone of the Laohugou Glacier No. 12 in the Qilian Mountains during ablation period[J]. Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology, 2011, 33(1):38-46.[孙维君, 秦翔, 任贾文, 等. 祁连山老虎沟12号冰川积累区消融期能量平衡特征[J]. 冰川冻土,2011, 33(1):38-46.]

[35] Lovell H, Fleming E J, Benn D I, et al. Former dynamic behaviour of a cold-based valley glacier on Svalbard revealed by basal ice and structural glaciology investigations[J]. Journal of Glaciology,2015, 61(226):309-328.

[36] Hagen J O, Korsen O M, Vatne G. Drainage pattern in a subpolar glacier:Broggerbreen, Svalbard[C]//Arctic hydrology:present and future tasks. Oslo, Norway:Norwegian National Committee for Hydrology, 1991:121-131.

[37] Huang Maohuan. Forty year's study of glacier temperature in China[J]. Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology, 1999, 21(3):193-199.[黄茂桓. 我国冰川温度研究40年[J]. 冰川冻土,1999, 21(3):193-199.]

[38] Yan Ming, Ren Jiawen, Zhang Zhanhai, et al. The progress of glaciological studies in Svalbard and Chinese construction of a glacier monitoring system close to the Yellow River Station in Ny-Alesund, Svalbard[J]. Chinese Journal of Polar Research, 2006, 18(2):137-147.[闫明, 任贾文, 张占海, 等. 斯瓦尔巴群岛冰川学研究进展与我国北极冰川监测系统建设[J]. 极地研究,2006, 18(2):137-147.]

[39] Mernild S H, Liston G E, Hiemstra C A, et al. Greenland ice sheet surface mass-balance modelling and freshwater flux for 2007, and in a 1995-2007 perspective[J]. Hydrological Processes,2009, 23(17):2470-2484.

[40] Yang K, Smith L C, Chu V W, et al. Fluvial morphometry of supraglacial river networks on the southwest greenland ice sheet[J]. GIScience & Remote Sensing, 2016. DOI:10.1080/15481603.2016.1162345.

[41] Smith L C, Chu V W, Yang K, et al. Efficient meltwater drainage through supraglacial streams and rivers on the southwest Greenland ice sheet[J]. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,2015, 112(4):1001-1006.

[42] Higuchi K, Tanaka Y. Flow pattern of meltwater in mountain snow cover[J]. Hydrological Sciences Journal,1982, 27(2):256-256.

[43] Sugden D E. Glaciers and landscape:a geomorphological approach[M]. Hoboken, New Jersey:Wiley, 1976.

[44] Jarosch A H, Gudmundsson M T. A numerical model for meltwater channel evolution in glaciers[J]. The Cryosphere,2012, 6(2):493-503.

[45] Knighton A D. Channel form and flow characteristics of supraglacial streams, Austre Østerdalsisen, Norway[J]. Arctic and Alpine Research,1981, 13(3):295-306.

[46] Mantelli E, Camporeale C, Ridolfi L. Supraglacial channel inception:modeling and processes[J]. Water Resources Research,2015, 51(9):7044-7063.

[47] Gulley J D, Benn D I, Mueller D, et al. A cut-and-closure origin for englacial conduits in uncrevassed regions of polythermal glaciers[J]. Journal of Glaciology,2009, 55(189):66-80.

[48] Wang Hongbao. Chhogori glacier[J]. Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology, 1979, 1(2):72-78.[王鸿宝. 乔戈里峰与之冰川[J]. 冰川冻土,1979, 1(2):72-78.]

[49] Isenko E, Mavlyudov B R. On the intensity of ice melting in supraglacial and englacial channels[J]. Bulletin of Glaciological Research,2002, 19:93-99.

[50] Ewing K J. Supraglacial streams of the Kaskawulsh glacier[C]//Icefield ranges research project scientific results:Vol. 3. Calgary, Alberta, Canada:Arctic Institute of North America, 1972:153-162.

[51] Banwell A F, Arnold N S, Willis I C, et al. Modeling supraglacial water routing and lake filling on the Greenland Ice Sheet[J]. Journal of Geophysical Research,2012, 117(F4). DOI:10.1029/2012JF002393.

[52] Poinar K, Joughin I, Das S B, et al. Limits to future expansion of surface-melt-enhanced ice flow into the interior of western Greenland[J]. Geophysical Research Letters,2015, 42(6):615-616.

[53] Clason C C, Mair D W F, Nienow P W, et al. Modelling the transfer of supraglacial meltwater to the bed of Leverett Glacier, Southwest Greenland[J]. The Cryosphere,2015, 9(1):123-138.

[54] Arnold N S, Banwell A F, Willis I C. High-resolution modelling of the seasonal evolution of surface water storage on the Greenland Ice Sheet[J]. The Cryosphere,2014, 8(4):1149-1160.

[55] Leeson A A, Shepherd A, Palmer S, et al. Simulating the growth of supraglacial lakes at the western margin of the Greenland ice sheet[J]. The Cryosphere,2012, 6(5):1077-1086.

[56] Parker G. Meandering of supraglacial melt streams[J]. Water Resources Research,1975, 11(4):551-552.

[57] Ferguson R I. Sinuosity of supraglacial streams[J]. Geological Society of America Bulletin,1973, 84(1):251-256.

[58] Karlstrom L, Gajjar P, Manga M. Meander formation in supraglacial streams[J]. Journal of Geophysical Research:Earth Surface,2013, 118(3):1897-1907.

[59] Bryka?a D. Hydraulic geometry of a supraglacial stream on the Waldemar Glacier (Spitsbergen) in the summer of 1997[C]//Polish polar studies:26th International Polar Symposium. Lublin, Poland:Institute of Geophysics of the Polish Academy of Sciences, 1999:51-64.

[60] Hodgkins R. Seasonal evolution of meltwater generation, storage and discharge at a non-temperate glacier in Svalbard[J]. Hydrological Processes,2001, 15(3):441-460.

[61] Pavelsky T M, Smith L C. RivWidth:a software tool for the calculation of river widths from remotely sensed imagery[J]. IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters,2008, 5(1):70-73.

[62] Legleiter C J, Tedesco M, Smith L C, et al. Mapping the bathymetry of supraglacial lakes and streams on the Greenland ice sheet using field measurements and high-resolution satellite images[J]. The Cryosphere,2014, 8(1):215-228.

[63] Bælum K, Benn D I. Thermal structure and drainage system of a small valley glacier (Tellbreen, Svalbard), investigated by ground penetrating radar[J]. The Cryosphere,2011, 5(1):139-149.

[64] Hagen J O, Etzelm ller B,NuttallA-M. Runoff and drainage pattern derived from digital elevation models, Finsterwalderbreen, Svalbard[J]. Annals of Glaciology,2000, 31(1):147-152.

[65] Pälli A, Moore J C, Jania J, et al. The drainage pattern of Hansbreen and Werenskioldbreen, two polythermal glaciers in Svalbard[J]. Polar Research,2003, 22(2):355-371.

[66] Karlstrom L, Yang K. Fluvial supraglacial landscape evolution on the Greenland Ice Sheet[J]. Geophysical Research Letters,2016, 43(6):2683-2692.

[67] Bindschadler R. Monitoring ice sheet behavior from space[J]. Reviews of Geophysics,1998, 36(1):79-104.

[68] Konig M, Winther J G, Isaksson E. Measuring snow and glacier ice properties from satellite[J]. Reviews of Geophysics,2001, 39(1):1-27.

[69] Quincey D J, Luckman A. Progress in satellite remote sensing of ice sheets[J]. Progress in Physical Geography,2009, 33(4):547-567.

[70] Knighton A D. Channel form adjustment in supraglacial streams, Austre Okstindbreen, Norway[J]. Arctic and Alpine Research,1985, 17(4):451-466.

[71] Yang K, Smith L C. Supraglacial streams on the Greenland ice sheet delineated from combined spectral-shape information in high-resolution satellite imagery[J]. IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters,2013, 10(4):801-805.

[72] Thomsen H H. Photogrammetric and satellite mapping of the margin of the inland ice, West Greenland[J]. Annals of Glaciology,1986, 8:164-167.

[73] Thomsen H H, Thorning L, Olesen O B. Appplied glacier research for planning hydro-electric power, Ilulissat/Jakobshavn, West Greenland[J]. Annals of Glaciology,1989, 13:257-261.

[74] Ryan J C, Hubbard A L, Box J E, et al. UAV photogrammetry and structure from motion to assess calving dynamics at Store Glacier, a large outlet draining the Greenland ice sheet[J]. The Cryosphere,2015, 9(1):1-11.

[75] Rippin D M, Pomfret A, King N. High resolution mapping of supra-glacial drainage pathways reveals link between micro-channel drainage density, surface roughness and surface reflectance[J]. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms,2015, 40(10):1279-1290.

[76] McGrath D, Colgan W, Steffen K, et al. Assessing the summer water budget of a moulin basin in the Sermeq Avannarleq ablation region, Greenland ice sheet[J]. Journal of Glaciology,2011, 57(205):954-964.

[77] Joughin I, Das S B, Flowers G E, et al. Influence of ice-sheet geometry and supraglacial lakes on seasonal ice-flow variability[J]. The Cryosphere,2013, 7(4):1185-1192.

[78] Lampkin D J, VanderBerg J. Supraglacial melt channel networks in the Jakobshavn Isbr region during the 2007 melt season[J]. Hydrological Processes,2014, 28(25):6038-6053.

[79] Johansson A M, Brown I A. Observations of supra-glacial lakes in west Greenland using winter wide swath synthetic aperture radar[J]. Remote Sensing Letters,2012, 3(6):531-539.

[80] Yang K, Smith L C, Chu V W, et al. A caution on the use of the digital elevation models to simulate supraglacial hydrology of the Greenland Ice Sheet[J]. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing (minor revision), 2015, 8(11):5212-5224.

[81] Lewis S M, Smith L C. Hydrologic drainage of the Greenland Ice Sheet[J]. Hydrological Processes,2009, 23(14):2004-2011.

[82] Ahlstrom A P, Boggild C E, Mohr J J, et al. Mapping of a hydrological ice-sheet drainage basin on the West Greenland ice-sheet margin from ERS-1/-2 SAR interferometry, ice-radar measurement and modeling[J]. Annals of Glaciology, 2002, 34(1):309-314.

[83] Arnold N. A new approach for dealing with depressions in digital elevation models when calculating flow accumulation values[J]. Progress in Physical Geography, 2010, 34(6):781-809.

[84] Marco T, Ian C W, Matthew J H, et al. Ice dynamic response to two modes of surface lake drainage on the Greenland ice sheet[J]. Environmental Research Letters, 2013, 8(3). DOI:10.1088/1748-9326/8/3/034007.

[85] Colgan W, Steffen K, McLamb W S, et al. An increase in crevasse extent, West Greenland:hydrologic implications[J]. Geophysical Research Letters, 2011, 38(18):113-120.

[86] Selmes N, Murray T, James T D. Fast draining lakes on the Greenland ice sheet[J]. Geophysical Research Letters, 2011, 38(15):165-176.

[87] Sundal A V, Shepherd A, Nienow P, et al. Evolution of supra-glacial lakes across the Greenland Ice Sheet[J]. Remote Sensing of Environment, 2009, 113(10):2164-2171.

[88] Benn D I, Wiseman S, Hands K A. Growth and drainage of supraglacial lakes on debrismantled Ngozumpa Glacier, Khumbu Himal, Nepal[J]. Journal of Glaciology, 2001, 47(159):626-638.

[89] Komori J. Recent expansions of glacial lakes in the Bhutan Himalayas[J]. Quaternary International, 2008, 184(2):177-186.

[90] Gardelle J, Arnaud Y, Berthier E. Contrasted evolution of glacial lakes along the Hindu Kush Himalaya mountain range between 1990 and 2009[J]. Global and Planetary Change, 2011, 75(1/2):47-55.

[91] Benn D I, Bolch T, Hands K, et al. Response of debris-covered glaciers in the Mount Everest region to recent warming, and implications for outburst flood hazards[J]. Earth-Science Reviews,2012, 114(1/2):156-174.

[92] Li Zhongqin. A glacier melt water pool was discovered at summit of east branch of Glacier No. 1 at Ürümqi River head, Tianshan Mts., Xinjiang[J]. Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology, 2005, 27(1):150-152.[李忠勤. 天山乌鲁木齐河源1号冰川东支顶部出现冰面湖[J]. 冰川冻土, 2005, 27(1):150-152.]

[93] Liu Qiao, Christoph M, Liu Shiyin. Distribution and interannual variability of supraglacial lakes on debris-covered glaciers in the Khan Tengri-Tumor Mountains, Central Asia[J]. Environmental Research Letters,2015, 10(1). DOI:10.1088/1748-9326/10/1/014014.

[94] Reid T D, Carenzo M, Pellicciotti F, et al. Including debris cover effects in a distributed model of glacier ablation[J]. Journal of Geophysical Research:Atmospheres, 2012, 117(D18):119-130.

[95] Miles E S, Pellicciotti F, Willis I C, et al. Refined energy-balance modelling of a supraglacial pond, Langtang Khola, Nepal[J]. Annals of Glaciology, 2016, 57(71):29-40.

[96] Wang Xin, Liu Shiyin, Han Haidong, et al. Thermal regime of a supraglacial lake on the debris-covered Koxkar Glacier, southwest Tianshan, China[J]. Environmental Earth Sciences, 2011, 30(3):540-546.[王欣, 刘时银, 韩海东, 等. 科其喀尔冰川冰面湖温度变化及其热机制[J]. 地理研究, 2011, 30(3):540-546.]

[97] Krawczynski M J, Behn M D, Das S B, et al. Constraints on the lake volume required for hydro-fracture through ice sheets[J]. Geophysical Research Letters,2009, 36(10). DOI:10.1029/2008GL036765.

[98] Quincey D J, Richardson S D, Luckman A, et al. Early recognition of glacial lake hazards in the Himalaya using remote sensing datasets[J]. Global and Planetary Change, 2007, 56(1/2):137-152.

[99] Sakai A, Chikita K, Yamada T. Expansion of a moraine-dammed glacial lake, Tsho Rolpa, in Rolwaling Himal, Nepal Himalaya[J]. Limnology and Oceanography, 2000, 45(6):1401-1408.

[100] Barry G R, Chorley J R. Atmosphere, weather and climate[M]. 7th ed. London:Routledge, 1998.

[101] Cuffey K M, Paterson W S B. The physics of glaciers[M]. 4th ed. Cambridge, Massachusetts:Academic Press, 2010.

[102] Kirkbride M P, Warren C R. Tasman Glacier, New Zealand:20th-century thinning and predicted calving retreat[J]. Global and Planetary Change,1999, 22(1/2/3/4):11-28.

[103] Gao Xiao, Wu Lizong, Mool P K. Analysis of the characteristics of glacial lake variation in the Koshi River basin, the Himalayas based on RS and GIS[J]. Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology, 2015, 37(3):557-569.[高晓, 吴立宗, Mool P K. 基于遥感和GIS的喜马拉雅山科西河流域冰湖变化特征分析[J]. 冰川冻土,2015, 37(3):557-569.]

[104] Luthje M, Pedersen L T, Reeh N, et al. Modelling the evolution of supraglacial lakes on the West Greenland ice-sheet margin[J]. Journal of Glaciology,2006, 52(179):608-618.

[105] Leeson A A, Shepherd A, Briggs K, et al. Supraglacial lakes on the Greenland ice sheet advance inland under warming climate[J]. Nature Climate Change, 2015, 5(1):51-55.

[106] Liang Y L, Colgan W, Lü Q, et al. A decadal investigation of supraglacial lakes in West Greenland using a fully automatic detection and tracking algorithm[J]. Remote Sensing of Environment,2012, 123(6):127-138.

[107] Box J E, Ski K. Remote sounding of Greenland supraglacial melt lakes:implications for subglacial hydraulics[J]. Journal of Glaciology,2007, 53(181):257-265.

[108] Georgiou S, Shepherd A, McMillan M, et al. Seasonal evolution of supraglacial lake volume from ASTER imagery[J]. Annals of Glaciology,2009, 50(52):95-100.

[109] Sneed W A, Hamilton G S. Evolution of melt pond volume on the surface of the Greenland Ice Sheet[J]. Geophysical Research Letters,2007, 34(3):340-354.

[110] Pope A, Scambos T A, Moussavi M, et al. Estimating supraglacial lake depth in West Greenland using Landsat 8 and comparison with other multispectral methods[J]. The Cryosphere,2016, 10(1):15-27.

[111] Tedesco M, Steiner N. In-situ multispectral and bathymetric measurements over a supraglacial lake in western Greenland using a remotely controlled watercraft[J]. The Cryosphere,2011, 5(1):479-498.

[112] Das S B, Joughin I, Behn M D, et al. Fracture propagation to the base of the greenland ice sheet during supraglacial lake drainage[J]. Science,2008, 320(5877):778-781.

[113] Doyle S H, Hubbard A L, Dow C F, et al. Ice tectonic deformation during the rapid in situ drainage of a supraglacial lake on the Greenland Ice Sheet[J]. The Cryosphere,2013, 7(1):129-140.

[114] Zwally H J, Abdalati W, Herring T, et al. Surface melt-induced acceleration of Greenland ice-sheet flow[J]. Science,2002, 297(5579):218-222.

[115] Shepherd A, Hubbard A, Nienow P, et al. Greenland ice sheet motion coupled with daily melting in late summer[J]. Geophysical Research Letters,2009, 36(1):59-65.

[116] Banwell A F, Willis I C, Arnold N S. Modeling subglacial water routing at Paakitsoq, W Greenland[J]. Journal of Geophysical Research:Earth Surface,2013, 118(3):1282-1295.

[117] Morlighem M, Rignot E, Mouginot J, et al. High-resolution bed topography mapping of Russell Glacier, Greenland, inferred from Operation IceBridge data[J]. Journal of Glaciology,2013, 59(218):1015-1023.

[118] Flowers G E. Modelling water flow under glaciers and ice sheets[J]. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A:Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences,2015, 471(2176). DOI:10.1098/rspa.2014.0907.

[119] Isenko E, Naruse R, Mavlyudov B. Water temperature in englacial and supraglacial channels:change along the flow and contribution to ice melting on the channel wall[J]. Cold Regions Science and Technology,2005, 42(1):53-62.

[120] Cai Baolin, Xie Zichu, Huang Maohuan. The effect of melt-water percolation on the temperature of a glacier[J]. Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology, 1987, 9(2):123-131.[蔡保林, 谢自楚, 黄茂桓. 融水渗透对冰川温度的影响[J]. 冰川冻土,1987, 9(2):123-131.]

[121] Liu Qiao, Liu Shiyin. Tracer tests of englacial and subglacial drainage system evolution and a case study at the Hailuogou Glacier[J]. Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology, 2009, 31(5):857-865.[刘巧, 刘时银. 温冰川冰内及冰下水系季节演化及其水文学分析[J]. 冰川冻土,2009, 31(5):857-865.]

[122] Alley R B, Dupont T K, Parizek B R, et al. Access of surface meltwater to beds of sub-freezing glaciers:preliminary insights[J]. Annals of Glaciology,2005, 40(1):8-14.

[123] Holmlund P. Internal geometry and evolution of moulins, Storglaciaren, Sweden[J]. Journal of Glaciology,1988, 34(117):242-248.

[124] Dewart G. Moulins on Kaskawulsh glacier[J]. Journal of Glaciology,1966, 6(44):320-321.

[125] Arnold N, Sharp M. Flow variability in the Scandinavian ice sheet:modelling the coupling between ice sheet flow and hydrology[J]. Quaternary Science Reviews,2002, 21(4/5/6):485-502.

[126] Chandler D M, Wadham J L, Lis G P, et al. Evolution of the subglacial drainage system beneath the Greenland Ice Sheet revealed by tracers[J]. Nature Geoscience, 2013, 6(3):195-198.

[127] Gulley J D, Benn D I, Screaton E, et al. Mechanisms of englacial conduit formation and their implications for subglacial recharge[J]. Quaternary Science Reviews,2009, 28(19/20):1984-1999.

[128] Sanderson T J O. Thermal stresses near the surface of a glacier[J]. Journal of glaciology,1978, 20(83):257-283.

[129] Xu T, Yang W, Liu Y, et al. Crevasse detection in Antarctica using ASTER images[C]//8th International Conference on Image Analysis and Recognition. Berlin, Germany:Springer, 2011:370-379.

[130] Bindschadler R, Vornberger P. Guiding the South Pole traverse with ASTER imagery[J]. Journal of Glaciology,2005, 51(172):179-180.

[131] Zhou Chunxia, E Dongcheng, Wang Zemin. Ice crevasse detection based on gray level co-occurrence matrix[J]. Chinese Journal of Polar Research, 2008, 20(1):23-30.[周春霞, 鄂栋臣, 王泽民. 基于灰度共生矩阵的Grove山地区冰裂隙探测[J]. 极地研究,2008, 20(1):23-30.]

[132] Whillans I M, Merry C J. Analysis of a shear zone where a tractor fell into a crevasse, western side of the Ross Ice Shelf, Antarctica[J]. Cold Regions Science and Technology,2001, 33(1):1-17.

[133] Du Jiankuo, Xin Huijuan, He Yuanqing, et al. Response of monsoon temperate glaciers to climate change in Yulong Mountain[J]. Scientia Geographica Sinica, 2013, 33(7):890-896.[杜建括, 辛惠娟, 何元庆, 等. 玉龙雪山现代季风温冰川对气候变化的响应[J]. 地理科学,2013, 33(7):890-896.]