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Table 4 The five disaster grades and disaster degree
Fig. 1 Basic information of the study area： permafrost distribution on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau （QTP）^［1］ and location of Beiluhe （a）， picture of Beiluhe field observations （b） and annual mean air temperature in history period^［26］ and projections in the 21th century^［27］ of Beiluhe area （c）
Table 1 Environmental box technical specifications table
Fig. 1 Temperature distribution of the "dangerous section" of the frozen wall under the action
Table 1 Expressions of η and ω in different strength criteria
Fig.2 Mechanical model of "dangerous section" of frozen wall under groundwater
Fig. 1 Location of the Xingjiang-Tibet Highway
Fig.1 Typical thermokarst landforms
Fig.2 Mechanisms of soil carbon loss affected by thermokarst in the permafrost regions^［30］The active layer thickness in Zone 1 increases uniformly in space，while Zone 2 belongs to the spatial heterogeneous permafrost degradation caused by the differences of ground ice content
Table 2 The dynamic change of types of thermokarst collapse on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau^{［25，34，38］}
Fig.3 The development of thaw slump on the Eboling mountains of the Qilian Mountains on the northern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau from 1997 to 2015 （based on 2009 satellite imagery）. The widest part of the slump widened by 24 m from 1997 to 2009， and widened by 30 m from 2009 to 2015； the source of the slump retreated 23 m from 1997 to 2009， and from 2009 to 2015 going back 29 m
Fig.4 A schematic of thaw slumps influencing the ecosystem carbon cycle^［47］The black arrows represent the input of dissolved organic matter，and the white arrows represent the vertical carbon distribution process and the greenhouse gas emissions
Fig.5 Impacts of permafrost degradation on soil moisture， dissolved organic carbon and the release of greenhouse gases （CO₂， CH₄ and N₂O）， and the arrows indicate the direction and potential of ecosystem greenhouse gas exchange during the growing seasons^［45］
Fig.6 Conceptual model of the effects of the three types of most common hillslope thermokarst landscapes on carbon and nitrogen cycling and flux^［16］
Fig.7 Comparisons of methane release fluxes from thermokarst lakes in the Arctic regions^［85-90］
Fig.1 A schematic diagram of effects of permafrost on ecosystem respirations on the Third Pole regions^［17］The blue and green arrows showed the effects of permafrost on soil temperature and moisture， and the faded arrows showed the effects of permafrost decreased along with deepening of active layer. The yellow and dark green arrows showed the positive effects of soil temperature and negative effects of moisture on ecosystem respirations， and the larger arrows indicated stronger effects
Fig.1 The test plan flow chart
Fig.9 Vectorized SEM images
Fig. 1 Distribution of permafrost in the Northern Hemisphere （based on the EASE-grid）^［2］（a）； variations of the permafrost area （solid line） and its fraction （short dashed line） of the land surface at each latitude， and the accumulated fraction with latitudes （long dashed line） in the Northern Hemisphere^［2］（b）；（c） as （b） but for elevation bands^［2］
Table 4 RMSE （px） before and after correction for Kangerlussuaq Glacier

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