冰川冻土, 2021, 43(2): 555-567 doi: 10.7522/j.issn.1000-0240.2021.0043

寒区工程与灾害

气候变化影响下高山区泥石流形成机制研究及展望

鲁建莹,1,2, 余国安,1, 黄河清1

1.中国科学院 地理科学与资源研究所 陆地水循环与地表过程重点实验室,北京 100101

2.中国科学院大学,北京 100049

Research and prospect on formation mechanism of debris flows in high mountains under the influence of climate change

LU Jianying,1,2, YU Guo’an,1, HUANG Heqing1

1.Key Laboratory of Water Cycle and Related Land Surface Processes,Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research,Chinese Academy of Sciences,Beijing 100101,China

2.University of Chinese Academy of Sciences,Beijing 100049,China

通讯作者: 余国安, 副研究员, 主要从事泥沙运动、河流地貌及灾害研究. E-mail: yuga@igsnrr.ac.cn

编委: 武俊杰

收稿日期: 2020-09-14   修回日期: 2020-12-07  

基金资助: 国家重点研发计划项目.  2018YFC1505201
国家自然科学基金项目.  41971010

Received: 2020-09-14   Revised: 2020-12-07  

作者简介 About authors

鲁建莹,硕士研究生,主要从事河流地貌及地质灾害研究.E-mail:lujy.18s@igsnrr.ac.cn , E-mail:lujy.18s@igsnrr.ac.cn

摘要

全球范围内高海拔或高纬度山区(以下简称高山区),尤其高山冰川冻土急剧消退地区,广泛发育泥石流灾害。在全球气候变暖的大背景下,高山区泥石流的现实危害和潜在风险日渐凸显。与其他环境条件下泥石流过程主要由降雨激发不同,高山区泥石流的暴发多受降雨和温度条件的共同影响,其形成机制更为复杂,预测预警十分困难,因此加强高山区泥石流研究具有重要的科学价值和实践意义。通过述评近期高山区泥石流起动研究的主要进展,包括泥石流暴发与气象条件的关系,典型高山区泥石流事件成因,冰川冻土体消融破坏机制,以及冰碛土泥石流起动特征,认为未来高山区泥石流研究应加强高时空分辨率气象数据获取和物源动态变化分析研判,并从动力学机制层面进一步明晰高山区泥石流起动条件和发育过程。

关键词: 高山区泥石流 ; 暴发成因 ; 失稳机制 ; 起动特征 ; 水热条件

Abstract

Debris flow disasters are widely distributed in high-elevation or high-latitude mountain areas (referred to as debris flow in high mountains, DFHM), especially in areas where mountain glaciers and permafrost have receded rapidly. In the context of global climate change (temperature rising and higher possibility of occurrence of strong precipitation events), the actual hazards and potential risks of DFHM have drawn increasing attention. Unlike debris flows developing in low elevation environments which are mainly triggered by precipitation, the outbreak of DFHM is also significantly affected by temperature conditions, making its formation mechanism more complicated. Although a lot of research has been carried out on DFHM at home and abroad, effective prediction and early warning and prevention and control are still very difficult. It is of great scientific value and practical significance to further strengthen the starting conditions and mechanisms of glacial debris flow. This review summarizes the recent progress on initiation study of glacial debris flow, including: the relationship between glacial debris flow outbreak and meteorological conditions, causes of typical DFHM outbreaks, failure mechanisms and models of glacier (rock, or moraine deposits), and characteristics of moraine initiation. In the future, we should strengthen the acquisition of high spatial-temporal resolution meteorological data and the analysis and judgment of dynamic changes of material sources, and further clarify the formation conditions and development process of debris flow in alpine areas from the perspective of dynamic mechanism.

Keywords: debris flows in high mountains ; outbreak causes ; mechanism of stability failure ; initiation characteristics ; hydrothermal conditions

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本文引用格式

鲁建莹, 余国安, 黄河清. 气候变化影响下高山区泥石流形成机制研究及展望[J]. 冰川冻土, 2021, 43(2): 555-567 doi:10.7522/j.issn.1000-0240.2021.0043

LU Jianying, YU Guo’an, HUANG Heqing. Research and prospect on formation mechanism of debris flows in high mountains under the influence of climate change[J]. Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology, 2021, 43(2): 555-567 doi:10.7522/j.issn.1000-0240.2021.0043

0 引言

高海拔或高纬度山区(以下简称高山区)尤其高山冰川或冻土的边缘地带是泥石流灾害的易发区。由于高山环境多发育冰川(冻土)或分布积雪,相关文献常将这一环境形成的泥石流称之为“冰川泥石流”、“冰川融雪泥石流”或“冰雪-降雨耦合泥石流”1-4。从起动过程看,高山区泥石流一般由冰碛物、冰雪堆积物等物质在降雨、冰雪融水、冰崩、雪崩、冰碛湖溃决等条件下激发形成1-35。尽管高山区泥石流的形成起动区多为人迹罕至的高山冰雪/冻土坡面(或上游沟谷),但由于其流速高,演进距离长,且规模在演进过程中常会显著增大,因此,这类泥石流过程多破坏力巨大,易造成下游基础设施及居民生命财产的重大损失46-7

高山区冰川、冻土等对气候变化十分敏感,在全球气候变化(尤其升温)的大背景下,近几十年来我国青藏高原(尤其藏东南地区)、川西及新疆天山地区、欧洲阿尔卑斯山区、北欧斯堪的纳维亚山脉、冰岛、南美安第斯山区、北美落基山脉以及新西兰等国内外冰川冻土整体上处于快速消融退缩状态8-14。这些高山冰川、冻土急剧消退地区孕育了适宜泥石流发育的地形和物源条件15,是高山区泥石流的多发区。总体上看,气候变化引起的升温和降雨变化(如强降雨事件增多)使潜在孕灾环境更易于成灾16,如我国318国道川藏线和拟建川藏铁路重要通行区的藏东南地区、新疆天山地区独库公路、欧洲阿尔卑斯山区等频繁暴发大型甚至特大型泥石流灾害,阻断交通,损失巨大。因此,气候变化影响下高山区泥石流的现实危害和潜在风险正日益引发关注17-21

国内外学者对高山区泥石流成因和起动条件等已开展大量研究,但由于起动机制复杂,其预测预警仍非常困难,因此,深入研究高山区泥石流的形成条件和机制,提出科学有效的预测预警和防控策略,不仅是紧迫的国家需求,而且具有重要的科学价值。目前,针对高山区泥石流的研究涵盖暴发成因及起动机制22-30,动力过程、泥沙输送及地貌效应2631-34,泥石流事件与气候条件的关系35-37等。近年来,在对典型泥石流事件成因分析的基础上,开展冰川冻土体消融破坏机制、冰碛土泥石流起动特征等研究。同时,在现阶段还难以完全揭示高山区泥石流形成物理机制的实际情况下,尝试从统计角度挖掘泥石流发生与气象(水、热)条件的关系和暴发阈值。本文简要回顾近期高山区泥石流暴发成因和机制的主要研究进展,述评已有成果并探讨未来研究应关注的几个问题,以期促进高山区泥石流研究进一步深入。

1 典型高山区泥石流暴发与气象(水热)条件的关系

尽管全球气候变化的研究和地面监测主要集中于低海拔平原区,不过相关的研究已证实高山区气候变化和全球气候变化的一般趋势是吻合的,且高纬度或高海拔山区温度变化更为显著,升温速率会随着海拔的升高而增大(即升温海拔依赖现象elevation-dependent warming, EDW)38-40。纬度较高的欧洲阿尔卑斯山区Segl-Maria站(瑞士东南部瑞意边境,46°25.9′ N、9°45.7′ E,海拔1 804 m)和海拔较高的我国青藏高原波密站(藏东南,29°51.5′ N、95°46.2′ E,海拔2 736 m,)气象监测数据显示气候(尤其气温)呈现显著变化(图1)。其中,Segl-Maria站和波密站气温均呈上升趋势[图1(a)],Segl-Maria站监测系列较长,1980年以前升温较缓,1980年以来升温趋势显著;波密站监测系列较短,自20世纪60年代开始监测以来气温显著上升。相对而言,降水的区域分异明显,且波动十分强烈[图1(b)],Segl-Maria站年降水量仅有微弱上升趋势,波密站年降水量上升趋势较为显著。

图1

图1   欧洲阿尔卑斯山区Segl-Maria站和我国藏东南波密站年平均气温(a)和年降水量(b)变化

数据来源:meteoswiss(http://www.meteoswiss.admin.ch),中国气象科学数据中心(http://data.cma.cn)

Fig.1   Variations of annual mean air temperature and annual precipitation based on monitoring at Segl-Maria Station (European Alps) and Bomi Station (Southeast Tibet)


虽然高山区泥石流的发生不仅受气候因素(降水、气温)影响,还受地质地貌(岩性、坡度、局部地形)和物源(储量、级配构成)等其他因素制约,但在其他因素相对不变的条件下,气候变化引起的升温和降雨变化(强降雨事件增多)无疑会促进高山区泥石流的发生。图2为基于历史事件记录的欧洲阿尔卑斯山区和我国藏东南地区典型流域(区域)泥石流发生频率变化,其中,图2(a,b)为单一流域,图2(c,d)为区域范围。总体上看,这两个区域泥石流发生频率呈上升趋势,其中瑞士Ritigraben流域[图2(a)]已有的历史记录中超过一半的泥石流事件发生在近30年;瑞士Dorfbach流域[图2(b)]近百年来泥石流发生频率自1990年以来明显上升;法国阿尔卑斯山区[图2(c)]1970年以来和我国藏东南地区[图2(d)]近1950年以来泥石流发生频率总体也呈波动上升趋势,这与两个地区的气候变化尤其气温变化总体趋势相一致。图2(d)中藏东南地区泥石流发生频率统计未包括古乡沟泥石流事件,因为古乡沟泥石流暴发与1950年察隅8.0级地震有密切联系41。随着震后沟内松散物源逐渐减少,其泥石流发生频率和强度相应呈递减趋势42。为在宏观上准确掌握气候变化影响下区域泥石流发生频率变化,应尽可能排除地震等非气候激发因素影响,考虑物源为非限制因素(即物源充足)的泥石流事件,故古乡沟泥石流事件未予考虑。另外,需要指出的是,对于法国阿尔卑斯山区和藏东南地区而言,直接比较两者泥石流发生频率大小意义不大,因为不同资料对泥石流事件的统计遴选标准有所差异,法国阿尔卑斯山区的数据包含了各种规模的泥石流事件,而藏东南地区的泥石流事件根据已有文献资料汇总,更侧重中等规模以上泥石流事件,对小规模事件可能覆盖不足。即便如此,不妨碍从宏观上考察两个区域泥石流暴发频率的总体趋势。

图2

图2   近百年来欧洲阿尔卑斯山区和我国藏东南地区典型流域(区域)高山区泥石流发生频率变化

数据来源:Ritigraben流域43-47,Dorfbach流域48,法国阿尔卑斯山区49,藏东南地区50-66

Fig.2   Frequency variations of debris flow occurrence in typical high mountain basins (regions) in European Alps and Southeast Tibet in the past century


分析欧洲阿尔卑斯山区和我国藏东南地区泥石流发生频率与气候变化的统计结果,可以看到高山区泥石流暴发与气象条件存在紧密关系,水热条件变化对高山区泥石流形成具有重要影响。许多国内外学者尝试从降雨和气温两个气象因子入手,挖掘泥石流暴发和两个因素的响应关系和统计规律35-3767-70。已有的研究中,降雨因子主要包括前期雨量、临阵降雨强度,而气温因子包括前期积温、前期均温、暴发前日最高气温等(表1)。例如,基于美国落基山脉高山区27场冰雪消融形成滑坡(泥石流)事件,分析滑坡触发时间与气温(采用日最高气温6日滑动均值)的关系,通过统计分析获得冰雪融化形成滑坡的阈值气温68;通过分析藏东南帕隆藏布流域典型冰川泥石流沟10场大型泥石流过程暴发时间和气象条件,建立冰川(冰川融雪)泥石流起动的经验判定模型69。也有学者尝试将气象因子(日最高温度、日降雨量)与堆积体稳定性指标(泥水位、地表位移、含水率)相结合,建立冰川降雨型泥石流预警模型71

表1   部分高山泥石流暴发事件与气象因子关系分析实例

Table 1  Typical case studies of correlations between debris flow events and climate factors in high mountains

降水指标气温指标泥石流指标区域/流域文献来源
3日累积降水*暴发时间瑞士阿尔卑斯山Ritigraben35
日最高气温6日滑动均值滑坡暴发美国落基山脉68
3日累积降水3日最高气温之和暴发时间中国藏东南古乡沟70
日降水日最高气温洪峰流量中国藏东南古乡沟36
累积降水积温#暴发时间中国藏东南天摩沟37
累积降水前期均温暴发时间中国藏东南地区69

注:*基于1966—1994年日降水数据系列,计算日均降水量和标准差,分析显示当3日累积降水量超过日均降水量+4倍标准差时一般会发生泥石流;滑坡泥石流数据系列1925—1997年共27场,全部发生在日最高气温6日滑动均值首次超过14.4 ℃后的3周内,其中1周内发生14场滑坡(占比52%),2周内发生23场滑坡(占比85%);#采用连续2或3天日最低气温在0 ℃以上或上一场泥石流暴发以来的日均温累积。

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2 高山区泥石流成因和机制

和其他环境暴发的泥石流过程类似,在起动成因上高山区泥石流可分为土力类(由冰崩、雪崩、岩崩、冰碛物滑坡等触发转化形成)和水力类(由降雨和融雪径流通过底蚀和侧蚀过程形成)两大类(图3),但在高山区,冰川、冻土、岩体、冰碛物坡体的强度和稳定性不但受降水影响,而且受温度制约,因为温度不仅影响冰体(岩体)稳定性,还影响冰雪融化和冻土消融,进而影响径流和地下水过程72-73,所以高山区泥石流的成因和过程十分复杂,往往是土力类和水力类过程相互促进、互为依托的结果,其研究涉及冰冻圈科学、土力学、岩石力学、山坡水文学、泥沙运动力学等多个学科。

图3

图3   高山区泥石流主要起动类型和研究重点

Fig.3   Schematic diagram of the two macro-groups of debris flows in high mountains and related research highlights


2.1 典型泥石流事件成因

高山区泥石流可能由不同的环境条件触发,但大部分泥石流事件发生在夏季(或初秋),说明水热(降雨、温度)条件对泥石流激发形成有重要影响。表2列出近年来国内外研究报道的典型高山区泥石流事件,其中国内的研究主要集中于藏东南地区,尤其以近年十分活跃的天摩沟为典型,国外则涵盖印度、北美、欧洲和南美等地区。

表2   近年国内外报道的典型高山区泥石流事件及成因/机制

Table 2  Typical debris flows and their causes in high mountains reported in recent years

地区区域/流域暴发时间泥石流规模/104 m3成因/机制文献来源
亚洲中国藏东南天摩沟

2007-09-04

2010-07-25

2010-09-03

2018-07-11

10~100升温和降雨触发冰崩、滑坡,沟道短暂形成堰塞体后溃决24283779-82
中国藏东南色东普沟

2018-10-17

2018-10-29

约1 500

约700

升温和2017年米林6.9级地震共同引发冰崩84-86
印度背阿坎德邦Gangotri冰川2017-07-16/07-19790±10冰川退缩、冰碛物消融失稳、连续降雨等多因素共同作用触发冰碛堰塞湖溃决2983
北美洲美国华盛顿州喀斯喀特山脉Rainier山2006-11-06/11-07约5强降雨,起动区沟蚀+流通区侧蚀26
加拿大不列颠哥伦比亚省Meager山火山区2010-08-06约4 850山体滑坡75
欧洲瑞士Zermatt山谷1864—2008年(共118场)5—8月,短时强暴雨引发;9—10月,长时间暴雨引发87
瑞士Ritigraben岩石冰川1958—2005年(共47场)0.1~2.7冰川冻土消融退化,松散堆积物形成、补给和蠕移88
瑞士Bondasca山谷2012-07-05/09-24(共4场)2011年冬季岩崩产生大量物源,2012年汛期降雨激发形成泥石流89
2017-08-23/08-25(共15场)

54.5±5

(第1场规模)

2017年岩崩产生巨量物源,泥石流过程无降水贡献3
意大利、法国、瑞士三国(17个位置)

1983—2003年

(共17场,I类9场,II类2场,III类6场)

I类<80

II类<10

III类<15

I类:长时强降雨,坡积物水分饱和失稳;II类:短时暴雨破坏冰川径流系统;III类:冰湖溃决或冰雪融化6
法国阿尔卑斯山区1961—2000年强降雨90
挪威Fjærland山2004-05-0824冰湖溃决34
俄罗斯高加索山区Kolka-Karmadon2002-09-2010 000岩体/冰体滑坡74
冰岛Gleidarhjalli地区1999-06-10/06-12约0.3冰雪快速消融22
挪威Fjærland2004-05-0824冰湖溃决34
南美洲阿根廷巴塔哥尼亚安第斯山脉Rio Manso冰川河谷2009-05

洪峰流量

4 100 m3⋅s-1

强降雨,冰碛坝漫顶,冰湖溃决91
秘鲁Cordillera Blanca的Rio Santa山谷

1962-01-10

1970-05-31

约1 300

约5 300

冰崩、岩崩引发

地震触发冰崩、岩崩

76-77

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总体上看,由强降雨、冰川融雪(或冰川融雪与降雨耦合)形成的水力类泥石流过程和由冰崩、雪崩、滑坡等土力类过程触发转化形成的泥石流过程都有发生,但大型或特大型冰川泥石流多由土力类过程触发,如俄罗斯高加索山区北奥赛梯Kolka-Karmadon冰川泥石流 74,加拿大Meager山区泥石流75,以及秘鲁安第斯山脉Rio Santa峡谷泥石流76-77等,其规模都在千万甚至亿立方米量级。

土力类过程和水力类过程的耦合对泥石流的触发和规模放大有重要影响。我国藏东南的天摩沟在过去十多年里十分活跃,发生了数次泥石流(表2),按照规模进行分类78,均为大规模泥石流。研究认为,天摩沟第一次泥石流(2007-09-04)是由升温和降水引起的冰崩岩崩所触发,其他三次泥石流(2010-07-25,2010-09-03,2018-07-11)主要是由夏季降水和冰川融雪径流激发,这四场泥石流过程在演进过程中由于沟谷冰碛物沿程侵蚀或堵溃效应(滑坡或雪崩短暂形成冰碛堰塞湖后溃决)而规模不断放大24283779-82。印度喜马拉雅山区Gangotri冰川的泥石流事件也是由多种因素耦合触发形成,包括冰川退缩、冰碛物消融退化形成松散堆积物、持续降雨以及冰碛湖溃决等2983。除强降雨外,因升温而引起的冰雪快速消融形成径流也是高山区激发形成泥石流的一种重要机制22,因为冰川、冻土退缩形成的松散堆积物在径流冲蚀作用下极易失稳形成泥石流。

瑞士阿尔卑斯山区Bondasca山谷泥石流事件显示物源条件及其变化对泥石流发育形成有重要影响3。Bondasca山谷2012—2017年共发生19起泥石流事件,这些事件均与两次岩崩密切相关。第一次岩崩发生在2011年冬季(12月27日),产生1.5×106~1.7×106 m3的松散堆积物;第二次发生在2017年夏季(8月23日),产生(3±0.02)×106 m3松散堆积物。2011年冬季发生的第一次岩崩并没有立即转化为泥石流,不过,2012年夏季的一般强度降雨引发了4场泥石流。但随后的2013—2015年,类似强度的降雨过程并未进一步触发泥石流事件(说明2012年的4场泥石流已基本将2011年崩塌产生的松散物源输送至下游)。2017年夏季的第二次岩崩,岩体崩落过程中撞击峡谷冰川,几乎立即转化为泥石流,在9.5小时内发生了10次泥石流,在之后2天内又发生了2次。重要的是,2017年岩崩引起的泥石流几乎完全没有降雨过程参与。

2.2 冰川及冰碛物坡体/岩体失稳机制

大型及特大型冰川泥石流暴发的缘起多是土力学过程,如冰缘或冰碛物坡体(岩体)的突然崩落、滑坡等3212872-7380。这一方面提供了大量的“准”泥石流物源,另外一方面,由于高山区沟道巨大的高程落差,在崩塌(滑坡)体巨大能量冲击下,下游陡峭坡体(沟谷)上的松散冰碛物或冰湖易于失稳。由于这种崩塌(滑坡)过程多发生在气温较高的夏季,冰碛物堆积体一般含水率较高,因而在失稳后更易转化为泥石流92,且其泥石流过程通常具有比其他环境泥石流高得多的流速(如藏东南天摩沟2007年9月4日暴发的冰川泥石流速度估算达到40 m⋅s-1甚至更高)和破坏力676-7780

近年大量研究尝试通过控制实验或野外原型观测,力图揭示冰川、岩石及冰碛土的失稳机制和过程,即分析冰川(岩石、冰碛物)剪切应力与温度之间的关系、断裂临界及预测模型。与一般(岩)土体失稳通常与含水率(孔隙水压力)变化紧密相关有所不同,高海拔冰川冻土区,冰体(岩体)的脆断还与温度变化关系十分密切93。冰填充的岩石节理在冰川和基岩冻土区十分常见,这种节理由于冰分凝作用而不断扩大121894。冰填充的基岩节理的刚度和强度是正应力和温度的函数,如果山坡(岩石或冰碛物)的稳定由冰填充的节理维持,其稳定系数(稳定性)将随着温度升高而降低95-96

研究发现,冰冻状态向消融状态的往复过渡可能对岩体(坡体)稳定有十分重要的影响18。因而,近年的工作多针对冰点(0 ℃)附近的温度开展岩体剪切破坏研究97-99。目前已有实验对冰填充的岩石节理破坏过程进行精细观测,这些实验或基于高山岩石的原型监测100,或使用冰川冻土区采集的原状冰芯、岩芯及人工样品(如混凝土等)在室内开展9597-99101-103,且通常采用声发射检测技术捕捉冰川或岩石脆断时的临界状态。

对冰和岩石-冰交接面的脆裂剪切破坏实验显示,升温和卸载(即去除岩石或沉积物上覆覆盖层)都会导致冰填充岩石节理的剪切阻力显著降低97-98104。基于摩尔-库伦破坏准则,分析冰填充岩石节理破坏临界剪切力。

τ=σ×tanφ+c

式中:τ为冰填充岩石节理破坏时的剪切应力,是正应力σ、内聚力c和摩擦角φ的函数。

文献[99]通过控制实验[温度区间为(-8±0.1)~(-0.5±0.1) ℃],拟合得到冰冻岩石节理破坏的临界剪切力与正应力和温度的函数关系[式(2)、(3)]。尽管拟合关系式中的系数在不同环境条件下应存在差异,但至少反映内聚力c和摩擦系数μ(即tanφ)随温度T上升(由冰冻状态逐渐上升至冰点附近)而减小的一般特征。

c=53.3-73.5×T
μ=0.42-0.21×T

除冰川退化外,高山区多年冻土的消融对坡体稳定也有重要影响。相对而言,基岩-坡体稳定性和冰川退化之间的关系已开展较多的研究,而多年冻土及其动态变化对坡体稳定性的影响近期才得到关注12105。陡峭岩石上多年冻土退化受岩石裂隙水渗滤的强烈影响18。当富含冰的泥沙堆积物中的冰融化时会发生“消融固结”作用,导致孔隙水压力上升105,原来在冰冻条件下稳定的泥沙坡积体(冰碛体)趋于失稳。因而,升温引起的多年冻土消融退化很可能引起高山区山坡失稳规模增大、频率上升106

不过,尽管已有大量证据支撑岩体、冻土升温而失稳破坏的事实17107-109,但将单个失稳破坏事件确定无疑地归结为由升温引发还很困难。需要指出的是,高山区多年冻土具有复杂的空间分布特征,受坡度、坡向、海拔、阳光辐射和降雪等时空分布的影响105110,坡体失稳及物质运动输移与温度变化有关,但两者之间关系的强度区间和频率范围十分宽广1292111。基于瑞士阿尔卑斯山区、勃朗峰(Mount Blanc massif)和新西兰南阿尔卑斯山脉53次新近大型岩石崩塌和事件发生季节气象条件(日最高气温)的分析显示,除瑞士阿尔卑斯山区24场大型崩塌中的14场发生前有一天或多天高温记录,勃朗峰(仅2年监测数据)和新西兰南阿尔卑斯山的崩塌事件和气温监测数据并没有显著性统计结果支撑高温天气对应更高的崩塌发生率112-113。这说明升温导致的冰川冻土消融与泥沙堆积物坡体/岩石破坏失稳之间可能存在时间延迟,而这种延迟具有很大的不确定性。

2.3 冰碛土泥石流起动特征

近年国内对高山区泥石流的研究关注冰碛土的起动特征和影响因素。我国冰碛土广泛分布在青藏高原及周边区域,与分布于干旱河谷的宽级配砾石土体特征不同,冰碛土虽也属宽级配砾石土体,但粗大颗粒多、黏粒含量少,因此摩擦阻力大、黏滞阻力小30。现代冰碛土一般堆积于冰缘区末端或冰蚀沟谷,而老冰碛土则一般为历史冰期遗存的冰碛物历经化学、物理和生物作用所形成。

国内冰碛土起动的研究目前涉及三个典型区域:基于川西贡嘎山地区开展冰碛物物源补给特征和形成机制的研究27114-115,分析得到物源粒径的弱双峰型分布特征,将物源汇集过程分为沟道汇集阶段、土体粗化阶段和循环冻融阶段三个阶段,提出这类泥石流形成过程的四阶段模式;以中巴公路喀喇昆仑山区原状冰碛土开展起动实验,分析土体不同初始含水率条件下融水冲刷冰碛物形成泥石流的起动过程116,实验发现泥石流起动类型为坍塌推移型,探讨含水率与渗流、冲刷作用及孔隙水压力的关系;针对藏东南帕隆藏布流域嘎隆拉冰川末端三种冰碛土体(经过风化改造的老冰碛土体、现代冰碛土体和混合冰碛土体)开展降水与冰雪融水作用下泥石流起动实验,比较不同颗粒组成、不同实验条件下的土体起动泥石流特征30。实验发现,随黏粒含量不同,冰碛土起动特征存在明显差异。当黏粒含量较高时(>3%),土体发生铲蚀+面蚀型泥石流起动;当黏粒含量中低时(不高于3%),大部分坡面泥石流起动以掏蚀+坍塌型为主;当黏粒含量过低时(<0.32%),冰碛土体不易起动泥石流30。通过对帕隆藏布流域嘎隆寺沟不同细粒含量的冰碛土开展比重和相对密度测试以及实验,探讨细粒含量对冰碛土抗剪强度的影响。实验发现,细粒含量引起孔隙结构的差异,一定范围内,细粒含量升高导致抗剪强度降低117

3 未来研究应关注的问题

3.1 宏观尺度气候变化与高时空分辨率气象数据

高山区泥石流暴发与气候条件(尤其是气温和降水)密切相关。现有研究多以特定泥石流事件或特定泥石流沟为对象分析高山区泥石流起动与气象条件的关系,未来应关注小流域与区域乃至全球尺度的结合。研究气候变化(如升温或高强度降水事件概率上升等)条件下高山区泥石流起动,针对IPCC气候报告(2020—2050年),定量评估典型高山区(如藏东南地区)气候的可能变化趋势,建立完善多尺度降水-气温经验模型,藉此在区域甚至全球尺度上分析气候变化影响下的高山区泥石流未来特征。

基于统计方法建立的泥石流预判方法的可靠性和准确性一方面依赖于数据样本的大小,如泥石流事件样本数,考虑的降雨、气温、物源等因子数;另一方面则受制于气象数据的精度和时空分辨率。高山区地形变化强烈,其气象因子(尤其降雨)空间分异十分显著。由于高山区气象站点分布稀疏,目前在分析特定流域泥石流暴发成因时,多采用泥石流暴发流域附近站点的气象数据进行替代,客观上存在误差和不确定性。因而,应对高山区典型泥石流流域气象监测站点进行加密布置,以获取高时空分辨率的气象数据。基于RCP气候变化情景模式进行空间降尺度分析,结合遥感降水栅挌数据多边型区域纠偏等方法获取研究区时间序列气象数据资料69是较好的尝试,但仍需加强与地面站点实测数据比对和验证。

3.2 高山区冰川冻土(冰碛物坡体/岩体)失稳及物源变化的不确定性

高山区冰崩、雪崩、山体滑坡等土力类过程触发的泥石流往往规模巨大,灾害严重,但崩塌和滑坡失稳的时间和位置仍难以观测和预测。冰体(冰碛物坡、岩石)断裂、崩塌和滑坡失稳等存在时间尺度上差异巨大的延迟作用,其范围可能跨越天—年—百年,甚至更长时间尺度,具有强烈的不确定性(图4),这也是预测预判冰体(岩石、冰碛物)破坏失稳的巨大难点102。未来的研究应明晰影响高山区冰体(岩体和冰碛物)稳定的本底条件(地质岩性等)和激发因子(气温、冰分凝作用等),探求岩体和冰碛物坡体失稳破坏的核心控制因子和临界条件。

图4

图4   高山区坡体失稳在时间和断裂深度上的分布区间12

Fig.4   Time and depth scales involved in slope stabilities in high mountains12


冰川冻土和冰碛物坡的稳定受气候变化的显著影响,应关注由于气候变化(尤其气温上升)等引起高山区冰川或多年冻土区0 ℃等温线的上移变化,因为0 ℃等温线的上移意味着原本常年被冰雪覆盖或处于冰冻状态的岩石或冰碛坡积物将消融出露,转化为潜在的泥石流物源。根据未来气候变化的可能情景,估算典型高山区0 ℃等温线上移的可能范围,开展系统的野外调查,并借助遥感和GIS技术,估算潜在可“动”物源量级、分布和属性(级配构成、岩性),特别注意大规模崩塌滑坡事件造成的“准”泥石流物源量的急剧增加对潜在泥石流暴发的影响。

3.3 高山区泥石流发育的动力学机制

目前对高山区泥石流的起动机制尚需进一步回答两个基本问题:(1)对于由冰川(冰碛物坡/岩体)滑坡、崩塌等土力类过程触发形成的泥石流,揭示含冰/雪土体的液化机制和重点因子(如孔隙压力)的动态变化规律,在此基础上明晰滑坡/崩塌体转化为泥石流需要的地形地貌和环境条件(如坡体坡度及长度、温度、土体含水量、物源特征等);(2)对于降雨、冰雪融水等水力类过程引发的泥石流,需阐明水动力条件下土体颗粒起动的动力学机制。

物理模型实验和野外原型观测是泥石流起动研究的两个重要手段。物理模型实验在研究泥石流起动的动力学机制方面不可或缺6,但受模型比尺、实验泥沙颗粒粒径、高山区冰沙混合物制作、可控温度条件等客观因素制约,小规模模型实验难以真实反映高山区野外“自然”泥石流起动和动力过程118。随着传感器、信号存储和传输等技术手段的进步,野外原型观测在泥石流研究日益受到重视119-124。不过,针对高山区复杂环境泥石流的原型观测和监测分析仍十分薄弱。有必要以典型泥石流沟为对象,集成地声、次声、视频、压(应)力监测等技术手段,构建涵盖气象(降雨、气温)、地震波、次声波、流速、泥位、孔隙压力、正压力等指标的监测体系,开展沿程多断面高时空分辨率气象和泥石流起动的原型观测,系统收集泥石流起动过程中重点因子动态变化的数据资料。这将有助于检验和修正现有高山区泥石流起动模型,深入认识泥石流起动和演进过程的关键影响因子和作用机制。

4 结语

在全球气候变化的大背景下,高山区尤其高山冰川或积雪的边缘地带是泥石流灾害的多发区。近三十年来国内外围绕高山区泥石流暴发与气象条件的关系、典型高山区泥石流暴发成因、冰川冻土/冰碛物坡体消融失稳机制、冰碛土起动特征等已开展广泛研究,但由于研究对象十分复杂,实验和野外观测难度巨大,高山区泥石流发育机制和起动条件的研究依然任重道远。未来应继续加强高山区宏观尺度气候变化与高时空分辨率气象数据监测分析,开展物源动态变化和补给速率调查研判,明晰高山区冰川/冰碛物坡体失稳机制和临界条件,揭示高山区泥石流发育的动力学机制,推动高山区泥石流研究进一步深入。

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